Youth policy topics

Drug misuse and related initiatives at the European level

This section gives information about drugs issues and their relevance for young people in Europe

Drugs: Definition, and relevance to young people

What are drugs?

‘Drugs' means all psychoactive substances (‘substances that people take to achieve a change of mental, physical or emotional state') including tobacco, alcohol, medicinal drugs and volatile substances (inhalants). However, at the policy level controlled drugs (those included under international treaties) are dealt with differently to other substances. 

Why are drugs issues important?

Drugs issues are important because many people have tried psychoactive substances – so it is a major social phenomenon; much drug-taking involves law-breaking; and supplying some types of drugs to users involves serious crime – and drug trafficking transcends national borders

Drug issues are especially important in relation to young people as it is often in the teenage years that psychoactive substances are tried for the first time. Young people may be especially vulnerable – because of immaturity and inexperience.

How many young people have tried drugs?

Many young people across Europe have sampled controlled drugs. Many more have sampled other psychoactive substances, such as tobacco and alcohol. Far fewer are regular users of drugs, and even fewer have drug-related problems – although the absolute numbers in Europe are large. The most recent ESPAD Survey (in 2007, covering 35, mainly European, countries) found that, among 15- to 16-year-olds:

  • at least two-thirds had drunk alcohol at least once during their lifetime
  • on average, 58 per cent had tried cigarettes at least once; and 29 per cent had smoked in the past 30 days
  • 23 per cent of boys and 17 per cent of girls had tried illicit drugs at least once during their lifetime
  • most young people who had tried illicit drugs had used cannabis; lifetime cannabis use was reported by 19 per cent, and seven per cent had tried one or more other drugs
  • lifetime use of inhalants (volatile substances) was nine per cent
  • there was an overall downward trend in levels of drug use between 2003 and 2007, but there were exceptions. For example, Estonia and the UK had similar prevalence levels in 2007 (about 28 per cent), but this level was reached from opposite directions: in Estonia, an increase from eight per cent in 1995; and in the UK, a decrease from 42 per cent
  • however, heavy episodic drinking was on an upward trend between 1995 and 2007 (a nine per cent increase), mostly due to girls' increased drinking

Drugs harms

While most people who try drugs do not come to harm, drug-taking can lead to serious health, legal and social problems. Health and legal problems can be due to intoxication (doing dangerous or illegal things) or due to the psychoactive substances themselves – if they are illegal to possess, then there is a potential risk of being caught; and drugs can adversely affect health in the short- or long-term. Social problems can occur, for example, when parents or friends of drug-takers disapprove of their behaviour, or where drug-taking dominates someone's life and prevents them from doing other things – such as studying or working.

The legal and political framework for tackling drugs issues

The European Monitoring Centre on Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA)

The EMCDDA is the hub for drug-related information in the European Union. It provides the EU and its Member States with facts about drugs and a common framework to inform the drugs debate. It produces an Annual Report on the state of the drugs problem in Europe. Available in 23 languages, the report provides the latest European data and commentary on the drug situation across the 27 EU Member States, Croatia, Turkey and Norway. 

EU Drugs Strategy, 2005–2012 and EU Drug Action Plan, 2009–2012

The eight-year EU Drugs Strategy (2005-2012) combines reducing the demand for drugs (‘demand reduction') with reducing the supply of drugs (‘supply reduction').

The Drug Strategy has three cross-cutting themes: coordination; international cooperation; and research, information and evaluation. The Strategy links the two consecutive four-year EU Action Plans on drugs (2005–2008 and 2009-2012).

The EU Drugs Action Plan (2009-2012) has the ultimate aim to: ‘significantly reduce the prevalence of drug use among the population and to reduce the social and health damage caused by the use of and trade in illicit drugs'. There are five priorities: 

  • reducing the demand for drugs
  • reducing the supply of drugs
  • improving understanding of the drugs issues.
  • mobilising European citizens to take action
  • improving international cooperation on drugs issues

The demand reduction priority is particularly concerned with children and young people (especially potentially vulnerable groups), and emphasises the significance of polydrug use (the use of more than one drug).

Council of Europe Pompidou Group

The Pompidou Group‘s core mission is to: ‘contribute to the development of multidisciplinary, innovative, effective and evidence-based drug policies in its member states.' It comprises 35 member states. In 1980, the Pompidou Group was incorporated into the institutional framework of the Council of Europe.

The Pompidou Group links policy, practice and science, focusing on the local implementation of drug programmes and activities. The Group provides a European-wide multidisciplinary forum where policy-makers, professionals and researchers can discuss, exchange information, and share ideas on all drug-related issues. The Pompidou Group also has a bridging role between EU and non-EU European countries and towards neighbouring countries in the Mediterranean region.

Much of the Pompidou Group's work is in demand reduction and is concerned with young people. A particularly innovative activity is the European Drug Prevention Prize, awarded bi-annually to up to three projects exhibiting excellent drug prevention combined with maximal youth participation. 

International legal framework

There are three major international drug control treaties: 

The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has three pillars to its work programme field-based technical cooperation projects; research and analytical work; and work to assist States in the ratification and implementation of the relevant international treaties. The UNODC makes efforts to integrate and mainstream the gender perspective, particularly in its projects for the provision of alternative livelihoods and those against human trafficking. 

Other substances

Some other important psychoactive substances are not included in this political and legal framework – including tobacco, alcohol and inhalants.

Alcohol

In 2006, the European Commission adopted an EU strategy to support Member States in reducing alcohol-related harm (download pdf).

Tobacco

Tobacco is one of the most widely used psychoactive substances, but it has significant health risks. In response to these, the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control was adopted by the World Health Assembly in 2003.

Inhalants (volatile substances)

Some ordinary commercial substances, even those available in the home, can be misused to achieve intoxication. VSA (volatile substance abuse) or inhalant abuse is a serious problem, leading to a number of deaths across Europe. For a scientific account of deaths in the UK, see www.vsareport.org/. For an example of how VSA is tackled in the UK see the Re-Solv website.

Preventing drugs-related problems

There are many different ways of tackling drug-related harms and problems: there are two types of ‘universal prevention' (that is, prevention aimed at the whole population) – actions that attempt to control supply and actions that attempt to reduce demand.

The supply of substances like alcohol and tobacco are controlled by, for example, not allowing sales to young people, only allowing sales through licensed premises and using taxation to increase the price to reduce demand.

Restricting the supply of controlled drugs is attempted by interdiction and law enforcement.

Attempts to reduce the demand for substances often involve education – especially education in school. EU-DAP (the European Drug Addiction Prevention Trial) is a positively-evaluated EU project (supported by the Pompidou Group), implemented in schools in several EU countries. This project is partly based on evidence that skills development and ‘normative education' can be effective methods of preventing drug problems.

Prevention can also be targeted at those thought to be most at risk of drugs problems. And, for those who are taking drugs, ‘indicated prevention' – generally involving harm reduction initiatives – may be appropriate; see the International Harm Reduction Alliance for more details.

Drugs and Young People

Much drug policy focuses on young people, because:

  • drug-taking mostly commences in the teenage years
  • people who start taking drugs when they are young are more vulnerable to drugs problems
  • drugs may have particularly negative effects on the growing organism
  • society aims to protect young people from harm
  • prevention aimed at young people may be able to prevent them from moving from drug experimentation to more prolonged drug-taking.  

The EU Health Strategy (2008-2013) states: ‘Improving the health of children, adults of working age and older people will help create a healthy, productive population and support healthy ageing now and in the future' The Staff Working Document accompanying this Strategy describes the health of children and young people as a particular concern:

‘Threats to health such as falling levels of physical activity and rising levels of obesity, harmful alcohol use, drug abuse and mental stress pose risks to the health of young people now and in future. Inter-sectoral collaboration should be enhanced to promote children and young people's health, building on and contributing to existing action on rights of the child, combating poverty and social exclusion, and promoting participation of young people, as well as on EC youth-oriented public health activities on tobacco, alcohol, drugs, environment, nutrition, obesity, safe sex and mental health.' (page 13)

The EU Youth Strategy quotes the EU Health Strategy and, in its ‘Field of Action 4 – Health and Sport' has the objective to : 

‘Encourage healthy living for young people and physical education, sporting activity and collaboration between youth workers, health professionals and sporting organisations with a focus on preventing and treating obesity, injury, addictions and substance abuse, and maintaining mental and sexual health.'

Text drafted by Richard Ives for the partnership between the European Commission and the Council of Europe in the field of youth

Related policy topics

Back Youth violence

Youth violence

The case for youth violence prevention

Violence is one of the leading causes of death and disability among young people in Europe. Over 10,000 15-29 year old Europeans lose their lives to violence each year (World Health Organization, 2008) and far more suffer physical, emotional, psychological or social harm due to involvement in, witnessing or fearing violence. Violence can affect every aspect of young people's lives, hampering their prospects for education, employment and health, and reducing their ability to form healthy personal and social relationships. Preventing youth violence is a critical aspect in meeting a wide range of youth, social, family, health and employment policies. More widely, high levels of youth and other forms of violence can form barriers to economic investment in areas.

Compared with other age groups, young people have increased risks of involvement in violence as both victims and perpetrators (Sethi et al, 2010; Bellis et al, 2011). Youth is a period marked by rapid physical, emotional, cognitive and behavioural changes that can contribute to both aggression and vulnerability to violence. For example, biological and neurological changes occurring during puberty, such as a rise in the level of stress hormones, can increase the risk of engaging in aggressive or anti-social behaviour. Further, during youth, relationships with peers can take precedence over the influence of parents and other authority figures, and young people can be exposed for the first time to situations where violence may occur, such as sexual interactions, drinking environments and illicit drug markets. How young people cope with these challenges depends on the strength of their social and emotional skills, the family and social support they have around them and the cultural and social norms they have learned during childhood.

Early life opportunities for youth violence prevention

Many of the key risk factors for involvement in youth violence stem from the family and community environments in which young people grow up. Children who are abused or who live in dysfunctional households - for example where they witness domestic violence, parental substance use or criminal behaviour - have increased risks of later involvement with youth violence (Duke et al, 2010). Other risk factors in early life include having a teenage mother, coming from a single parent family, having poor parental relationships, and low educational achievement.

The impacts of children's early life experiences on their risks of violence mean that early life interventions have an essential role to play in preventing youth violence. Such interventions work with children and their families from the very earliest stages of life, fostering healthy brain development, the formation of social and emotional skills and strong family and community support. Effective programmes include home visiting by nurses for new parents, parent training programmes and preschool enrichment programmes (World Health Organization, 2009a). These interventions work to strengthen bonds between parents and their children; provide parents with knowledge and skills to understand and care for their child; and develop emotional, social and learning skills in young children. They can also incorporate broader support for families with health, social wellbeing and employment. As well as youth violence prevention, early interventions can have long-term benefits in reducing other forms of risk taking in young people such as alcohol abuse, tobacco and drug use and unsafe sex and can enhance their educational and employment outcomes. Such programmes can be highly cost effective; returning health, social and criminal justice related savings well in excess of programme costs (Aos et al, 2004).

Schooling and youth violence prevention

When children enter formal education, the provision of safe school environments is critical in protecting them from bullying and youth violence, and enabling them to learn and develop effectively. Whole school approaches create environments where bullying is not tolerated, incorporating clear regulations and procedures for addressing bullying, teacher training, parental education, the provision of safe physical environments and educational curricula that strengthen children's life skills. Life skills programmes include those that develop children's social and emotional skills, such as empathy, self-respect, problem-solving, anger management and effective conflict resolution. These programmes can reduce aggressive and violent behaviour in youths (World Health Organization, 2009b). School-based dating programmes can also provide youths with relationship skills and address gender stereotypes and norms with the aim of protecting young people from intimate partner and sexual violence.

Preventing youth violence through tackling alcohol

Youth violence is strongly associated with the use of alcohol, which can disinhibit aggression and increase individuals' vulnerability to assault. Measures to reduce the availability of alcohol and its harmful use by youth are important elements in violence prevention strategies (World Health Organization, 2009c). Strategies to reduce the availability of alcohol include those to increase price, implement and enforce age restrictions, reduce alcohol advertising and promotion, and limit the number of outlets that can sell alcohol. With much youth violence occurring in and around drinking venues, including pubs, bars and nightclubs, measures to promote responsible server practice (e.g. no sales of alcohol to minors or those already drunk), improve comfort levels (e.g. more seating, less crowding), prevent cheap alcohol promotions, enforce licensing legislation and provide deterrents to anti-social behaviour and aggression are also important.

Social determinants and youth violence prevention

The length and severity of youth involvement in violence can vary considerably. For many, fighting and other forms of delinquent behaviour can be a temporary phase of youth that is outgrown as individuals move into adulthood. For others, however, aggression and conduct disorder can emerge early in childhood, develop into more serious forms of offending and violence during adolescence, and continue into adulthood. These youths and their families can require more intensive support, such as that provided through multi-systemic therapy. Such therapy has been found to reduce violence, delinquency and crime among youths already engaging in offending behaviour, by incorporating psychotherapeutic techniques (e.g. cognitive behavioural therapy) with parent training and broader support to help youths and their families address problems with peers, schools and neighbourhoods.

Youths who live in areas with high levels of deprivation and crime, or who have few educational and employment opportunities may see little potential for their future and consider violence and crime as the only options for achieving status, resources and wealth. Where such communities have endemic violence, aggressive behaviour can be seen as both a social norm and a necessary response for self-protection. Such factors contribute to young people accessing weapons for self-protection, and joining gangs where violence can be legitimised and even promoted. The presence of gangs, weapons and drug markets is an important risk for youth violence. Youth violence can also thrive in societies with low levels of social cohesion, wide social inequalities, growing youth populations, high unemployment, weak criminal justice systems and where social and gender norms are tolerant of violent behaviour (Sethi et al, 2010).

Policy and youth violence prevention

The Council of Europe's Recommendation on the prevention of injury and the promotion of safety, covering both intentional and unintentional injury, identifies young people as a key group for attention. The World Health Assembly resolutions on the Prevention of violence: a public health priority (WHA49.25) and Implementing the recommendations of the World report on violence and health (WHA56.24), provide a framework for governments to take action to prevent violence. This is supported in Europe by the WHO Regional Committee for Europe's resolution on the Prevention of injuries in the WHO European Region.

The broad range of risk factors that contribute to youth violence are addressed through many broader European policies, including those focusing on education, employment, health and well-being, social inclusion and human rights. Violence prevention is also a core foundation of achieving many key youth-focused policies including the EU Youth Strategy, Agenda 2020: the future of the Council of Europe Youth Policy, and the European Union's Youth in Action Programme. While violence is one of many challenges in particular facing deprived populations, it is often a barrier to addressing other health and social issues as individual, community and financial investment in affected areas is impeded by fear and instability. Consequently, preventing violence is often a prerequisite for the successful implementation of other health and social policies.

The Violence prevention: the evidence series published by the World Health Organization details the evidence behind many of the prevention strategies outlined in this text. Specific to youth, WHO Europe's European report on preventing violence and knife crime among young people brings together information on the extent of youth violence in Europe, risk factors, evidence of what works in prevention and policy options. 

Text drafted by Mark Bellis and Karen Hughes for the partnership between the European Commission and the Council of Europe in the field of youth.